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2.2 spheres of work: two parties(sides) of a medal
Under influence of technological changes, liberalizations of trade and movement of capitals, development of integration processes, occurrences of the developing postsocialist markets economic all "absorbs" in itself national economies more intensively. The question is expansion of world trade, movement of capitals in all forms, population shift and a labour, a deepening of an information exchange. Thus the American economy as the most powerful in the world "" to the greatest degree as it is interested in extraction of the maximal benefits from penetration on other markets. For ten years (1987-1997) the American export has increased on 140 %, and his(its) contribution to economic growth has reached(achieved) 30 %. Being deeply involved in the world economy, the American economy, certainly, gets in the increasing dependence on a condition of a world(global) conjuncture and national economies, and is therefore interested in the international financial and economic stability. How these changes influence economy of USA and, accordingly, a labour market? On the one hand, "dividends", which United States receive from , are very high. First, cheap import the third countries constrains inflation and thus promotes growth of incomes, increase of a consumer demand and, as consequence(investigation), to growth of economy. Second, the openness of the American economy, its(her) dynamical development promote inflow of capitals and the qualified labour (first of all scientists and engineers) from abroad, that positively influences economic growth and, hence, on employment. Inflow of capitals, besides everything, allows to keep rates of loan interest on a low level, that has positively an effect for growth of investments. Thirdly, growth of export of the American goods results in creation of additional workplaces, frequently highly paid. Fourthly, export of the capital abroad, it is especial in the form of direct investments, creates to the American companies more favorable conditions for functioning (for the account of lower production costs): the rate of return raises, competitive positions are improved, that finally promotes strengthening of the American economy. On the other hand, it is not necessary to forget and about a back " a medal ". First, millions Americans lose workplaces as a result of translation of manufactures abroad and increases of scales of import (at USA significant deficiency of trading balance: only for January, 2000 almost 35 billion dollars) . Distribution of information technologies creates threat to the enterprises of sphere of services (financial, computer, transport, and to other kinds of services) as the probability of realization of this activity in the countries with cheaper labour grows. Second, amplification(strengthening) of the international competition even more often results in reduction of wages as alternatives to translation of the enterprises abroad. Thirdly, as the enterprises opened by the American firms abroad, are equipped with the advanced equipment, the enterprises located in Staffs(states), can lose the competitive advantages. And, at last, immigrants (especially illegal), working in USA, and foreigners at the Ameri
can enterprises abroad quite often suffer as a result of infringement by employers of the basic labour standards. The fundamental principles formulated by the International organization of work mean: The right of workers on freedom of associations and the conclusion of collective agreements, liquidation of forced labour, child labour, discrimination at employment. At a present stage its(her) positive consequences for the American economy and a labour market obviously outweigh negative. Parameters of economic growth evidently confirm it. In separate branches the effect is swept especially up. So, in 47 % borrowed(occupied) are directly connected to work on export, in space branch and in manufacture of electronic components - 44 %, in extraction of iron ores - 42 %, on a sailing charter - 41 %. At the same time more and more obvious there are losses which are born(carried) with economy of USA because of liquidation of workplaces as a result of translation of the enterprises abroad - first of all it concerns the metallurgical and textile industry, manufacture of the clothes, separate branches of a manufacturing industry. For example, for 1978 - 1999 number working on the enterprises making spare parts for automobiles, has decreased on third (instead of closed in USA new factories have started to operate in Mexico), and average earnings were in real terms reduced to 9 %. Attempts of workers to be organized and resist to negative consequences , as a rule, encounter resistance of businessmen. According to the research which have been carried out(spent) by experts Kornelskogo of university, 62 % of businessmen, whose business is connected to a manufacturing industry, threatened workers in case of creation of new trade union to transfer(translate) the enterprises abroad. Thus, essentially influences the American labour market and attitudes(relations) in this sphere, derivating it is a lot of problems. To some of them the economy successfully adapts, others demand more active and weighed reaction of the state.
2.3 Ways of adaptation to new conditions
Undoubtedly, the main answer to a call connected to development of new technologies and amplification(strengthening) , increase of an educational level and improvement of vocational training of a labour are. In present conditions workers are simply compelled to study and be retrained constantly. According to the ministry of work of USA, more than half of young people in the age of 17-27 years both having, and not having higher education, participate in any programs of so-called formation(education) of adults, . . In programs of improvement of professional skill. Thus only in 1991 about 80 % of graduates of high schools in the age of till 27 years participated in similar programs. All of them basically not state. On interrogations, about 70 % of the American companies used at the end of 90th years any forms of vocational training, among the large companies of those - 95 %. So wide scope of workers by programs of vocational training in many respects is connected by that base formation(education), whether it be school or even the maximum(supreme), quite often is not in time(does not ripen) behind requirements of technological revolution, and frequently and simply is at rather low level. In particular, results of inspections of the American association of management testify: approximately 20 % of the population on the basic parameters of literacy is at a level 5 classes of high school; many applicants for work do not maintain professional testing, is especial in mathematics (in 1996 - 1997 their share has increased with 19 up to 36 %). In opinion of experts of Association, so sharp deterioration of results of testing is connected to the increased requirements to the general(common) literacy and knowledge of mathematics. It is necessary to note, that the state makes serious efforts for improvement of an education system in the country. The special attention thus is given higher education; the problem(task) put to make his(its) so accessible, as well as average. The state assignments both for the maximum(supreme), and for secondary education are constantly increased (in 1999 - about 500 billion dollars). For improvement of quality of work, his(its) productivity and adaptibility to new technologies many businessmen all use nonconventional forms of the organization and stimulation of work more widely. The question is active involving of workers in process of acceptance of administrative decisions, use of various circuits of rotation of workers, expansion of their powers with a view of the maximal realization of the increased educational and qualifying potential, and also improvement of a social climate on manufacture. Same programs of investment of workers industrial actives of the enterprises, participation in distribution of incomes promote also. According to the National centre of the property of workers, in the beginning of 2000 in USA it was totaled about 10 thousand companies where workers owned a part of the share capital. In total in such programs (are most known - Employee Stock Ownership Plans though there are also others), by different estimations, participates from 7 up to 10 million workers. The new tendency in democratization of the property in USA is granting to ordinary workers of the right on , . . On the repayment of a part of the joint-stock property of the company under the fixed prices in favorable time. Earlier such practice was distributed only to the maximum(supreme) administrative personnel. In conditions of stable economic growth and an increased labour demand, first of all highly skilled, the system of a payment in USA undergoes serious changes. Though the annual gain of nominal wages in the country was reduced from 5,2 % in 1990 up to 4,2 % in 1999, application of other forms of indemnification - bonuses, has considerably extended, participations in profits etc. As are marked by experts of the advisory company " ", already 70 % of all American companies offer the employees on purchase of actions(shares), various bonuses and social privileges that allows to keep the most prepared and qualified labour. At a "rigid" labour market (deficiency of workers of many specialities) and high costs the organization of a payment in many companies is even more often reoriented on a labour from the unified model on especially individual. Thus in various branches rates of growth of wages appreciablly : if in manufacture of computers in 1998-1999 the wages have raised(increased) on 12 %, manufacture of semiconductors and the software - on 4,5 % in trade - on 1,7-1,8 %, and in telecommunication has decreased on 0,7 %. It is obviously necessary to allocate one more tendency, allowing to take into account opportunities of modern technologies and to reduce costs to a labour: distribution of nonconventional diagrams of work. The question is first of all two categories borrowed(occupied) - about time workers and about working on so-called alternative modes of work. The persons employed for performance of time, single work concern to the first (without the contract). In their 1997 in USA it was totaled 5,6 million (4,3 % of an aggregate number of a labour). To the second which totals 8,2 million person (6,3 % of a labour), - so-called individual , i.e. the persons working under the labour agreement (2 million borrowed(occupied), or 1,5 % of a labour). People of liberal professions frequently concern to them - journalists, lawyers, advisers etc.); The workers involved in work only in case of need (1,2 million person, or 0,9 % of a labour); rendering the time help (0,8 million person, or 0,6 % of a labour). Thus, the general(common) number of "nonconventional" workers reaches(achieves) 11 million (about 10 % of a labour), and under the forecast of the Bureau of labour statistics of the ministry of work of USA, their number should increase by 2006 by 50 %. Besides in USA it is totaled 17 % borrowed(occupied) (22 million person), working under the diagram of incomplete working week, i.e. less than 35 hours, and also 5,2 % of workers (7 million person), having more than one work, i.e. part-time workers. Advantages of these diagrams of work - in their greater flexibility, allowing to take into account interests as employers, and workers. For employers it first of all economy on bonuses and the social payments becoming already obligatory for constant workers in many firms, and also frequently and on other costs (use of premises(rooms), the charge of the electric power etc.), As application of modern information technologies allows "" and time workers to work, not leaving from a house. For borrowed(occupied) on nonconventional modes of work is an opportunity to combine work with family duties, education of children, a leaving(care) of elderly parents etc. For example, in 1997 more than half of contract workers - women combined such work with education of children. Thus of 25 % independent , 20 % of workers of agencies on rendering assistance and 53 % of workers on a call were borrowed(occupied) an incomplete working day in comparison with 18 % working on the traditional diagram. As show results of national inspection, 65 % of businessmen believe, that use of similar diagrams of work will extend.
Thus it is possible to ascertain two opposite tendencies in character of employment, the organization and stimulation of work. On the one hand, in conditions of a "rigid" labour market raises demand for experts (especially in the high technology branches), their salary, and also other forms of motivation - possession of the property, the right on etc. With another - under influence are more and more widely used and amplifications(strengthenings) of the international competition the American businessmen search for opportunities of reduction of costs, translating a part working on nonconventional diagrams of work as modern technologies even more often allow to make it. In turn, the state aspires to soften at a legislative level negative consequences , the workers connected first of all with liberation owing to translation of the enterprises abroad. On it federal laws and the appropriate programs on adaptation of economy to international trade and the special program of a similar orientation in frameworks are directed, in particular. These programs which are taking place under home nursing of the ministry of work, assume a number(line) of measures, including material aid, retraining and assistance of employment to the workers who have lost work as a result of the international competition. The additional help is given according to the new law on investments in a labour.
The conclusion
deepens, expands and accelerates the world interrelations and interdependence in all spheres of today's public life. For one it opens the new world of opportunities and hopes. For others it is the world in which people supervise things which directly mention their daily life ever less. Certainly, for the majority of people - the concept too abstract that she(it) could cause strong feelings - unimportantly, what plan. For them are appreciable consequences(investigations) trade, investments, drawing of damage to an environment and similar themes which connect people to fast changes in their life, carried out in the world scale. In the interrogation which has been carried out(spent) by the research centre of the Gallop in 1998, more than half of Americans (54 %) consider(examine) as "mainly positive" phenomenon for United States, 20 % - as the phenomenon "mainly negative", and 15 % interrogated have estimated as neutral process.
